diff --git a/src/AudacityApp.cpp b/src/AudacityApp.cpp
index a47e1d8ee..b8085d18d 100644
--- a/src/AudacityApp.cpp
+++ b/src/AudacityApp.cpp
@@ -1056,7 +1056,7 @@ void AudacityApp::OnTimer(wxTimerEvent& WXUNUSED(event))
          window.Iconize(false);
          window.Raise();
 
-         wxString errorMessage = wxString::Format(_(
+         auto errorMessage = XO(
 "One or more external audio files could not be found.\n\
 It is possible they were moved, deleted, or the drive they \
 were on was unmounted.\n\
@@ -1065,7 +1065,7 @@ The first detected missing file is:\n\
 %s\n\
 There may be additional missing files.\n\
 Choose Help > Diagnostics > Check Dependencies to view a list of \
-locations of the missing files."), missingFileName);
+locations of the missing files.").Format( missingFileName ) ;
 
          // if an old dialog exists, raise it if it is
          if ( auto dialog = MissingAliasFilesDialog::Find( *offendingProject ) )
diff --git a/src/AudioIO.cpp b/src/AudioIO.cpp
index 6cf1ef2e2..b279171ad 100644
--- a/src/AudioIO.cpp
+++ b/src/AudioIO.cpp
@@ -1435,7 +1435,8 @@ void AudioIO::StartMonitoring( const AudioIOStartStreamOptions &options )
                                   captureFormat);
 
    if (!success) {
-      wxString msg = wxString::Format(_("Error opening recording device.\nError code: %s"), Get()->LastPaErrorString());
+      auto msg = XO("Error opening recording device.\nError code: %s")
+         .Format( Get()->LastPaErrorString() );
       ShowErrorDialog( FindProjectFrame( mOwningProject ),
          XO("Error"), msg, wxT("Error_opening_sound_device"));
       return;
diff --git a/src/DirManager.cpp b/src/DirManager.cpp
index 1bf045782..04c6a802e 100644
--- a/src/DirManager.cpp
+++ b/src/DirManager.cpp
@@ -432,7 +432,7 @@ DirManager::DirManager()
    if (wxGetDiskSpace(globaltemp, NULL, &freeSpace)) {
       if (freeSpace < wxLongLong(wxLL(100 * 1048576))) {
          ShowWarningDialog(NULL, wxT("DiskSpaceWarning"),
-                           _("There is very little free disk space left on this volume.\nPlease select another temporary directory in Preferences."));
+                           XO("There is very little free disk space left on this volume.\nPlease select another temporary directory in Preferences."));
       }
    }
 }
diff --git a/src/Menus.cpp b/src/Menus.cpp
index 2f184b02d..002c58c2f 100644
--- a/src/Menus.cpp
+++ b/src/Menus.cpp
@@ -737,6 +737,6 @@ void MenuManager::TellUserWhyDisallowed(
    ShowErrorDialog(
       NULL,
       untranslatedTitle,
-      reason.Translation(),
+      reason,
       helpPage);
 }
diff --git a/src/MissingAliasFileDialog.cpp b/src/MissingAliasFileDialog.cpp
index 4a9c534d0..0d07d5af7 100644
--- a/src/MissingAliasFileDialog.cpp
+++ b/src/MissingAliasFileDialog.cpp
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ class MissingAliasFileDialog final : public ErrorDialog
    public:
    MissingAliasFileDialog(wxWindow *parent,
       const TranslatableString & dlogTitle,
-      const wxString & message,
+      const TranslatableString & message,
       const wxString & helpURL,
       const bool Close = true, const bool modal = true);
    virtual ~MissingAliasFileDialog();
@@ -35,7 +35,7 @@ class MissingAliasFileDialog final : public ErrorDialog
 
 MissingAliasFileDialog::MissingAliasFileDialog(wxWindow *parent,
       const TranslatableString & dlogTitle,
-      const wxString & message,
+      const TranslatableString & message,
       const wxString & helpURL,
       const bool Close, const bool modal)
 : ErrorDialog( parent,
@@ -66,7 +66,7 @@ namespace MissingAliasFilesDialog {
    
    void Show(AudacityProject *project,
              const TranslatableString &dlogTitle,
-             const wxString &message,
+             const TranslatableString &message,
              const wxString &helpPage,
              const bool Close)
    {
diff --git a/src/MissingAliasFileDialog.h b/src/MissingAliasFileDialog.h
index bbd8ad6c4..ae4179721 100644
--- a/src/MissingAliasFileDialog.h
+++ b/src/MissingAliasFileDialog.h
@@ -5,6 +5,7 @@ class AliasBlockFile;
 class AudacityProject;
 class TranslatableString;
 class wxDialog;
+class TranslatableString;
 
 #include <memory>
 #include <utility>
@@ -34,7 +35,7 @@ bool ShouldShow();
 /// Displays a custom modeless error dialog for aliased file errors
 void Show(AudacityProject *parent,
                      const TranslatableString &dlogTitle,
-                     const wxString &message,
+                     const TranslatableString &message,
                      const wxString &helpPage,
                      const bool Close = true);
 
diff --git a/src/ProjectAudioManager.cpp b/src/ProjectAudioManager.cpp
index 48a28433c..697fbdf28 100644
--- a/src/ProjectAudioManager.cpp
+++ b/src/ProjectAudioManager.cpp
@@ -259,7 +259,7 @@ int ProjectAudioManager::PlayPlayRegion(const SelectedRegion &selectedRegion,
          window.CallAfter( [&]{
          // Show error message if stream could not be opened
          ShowErrorDialog(&window, XO("Error"),
-                         _("Error opening sound device.\nTry changing the audio host, playback device and the project sample rate."),
+                         XO("Error opening sound device.\nTry changing the audio host, playback device and the project sample rate."),
                          wxT("Error_opening_sound_device"));
          });
       }
@@ -711,7 +711,8 @@ bool ProjectAudioManager::DoRecord(AudacityProject &project,
          CancelRecording();
 
          // Show error message if stream could not be opened
-         wxString msg = wxString::Format(_("Error opening recording device.\nError code: %s"), gAudioIO->LastPaErrorString());
+         auto msg = XO("Error opening recording device.\nError code: %s")
+            .Format( gAudioIO->LastPaErrorString() );
          ShowErrorDialog(&GetProjectFrame( mProject ),
             XO("Error"), msg, wxT("Error_opening_sound_device"));
       }
@@ -858,7 +859,7 @@ void ProjectAudioManager::OnAudioIOStopRecording()
                SelectedRegion{ interval.first,
                   interval.first + interval.second },
                wxString::Format(wxT("%ld"), counter++));
-         ShowWarningDialog(&window, wxT("DropoutDetected"), _("\
+         ShowWarningDialog(&window, wxT("DropoutDetected"), XO("\
 Recorded audio was lost at the labeled locations. Possible causes:\n\
 \n\
 Other applications are competing with Audacity for processor time\n\
@@ -867,7 +868,7 @@ You are saving directly to a slow external storage device\n\
 "
          ),
          false,
-         _("Turn off dropout detection"));
+         XO("Turn off dropout detection"));
       }
 
       auto &history = ProjectHistory::Get( project );
diff --git a/src/ProjectFileManager.cpp b/src/ProjectFileManager.cpp
index 3d0d51029..cad46818e 100644
--- a/src/ProjectFileManager.cpp
+++ b/src/ProjectFileManager.cpp
@@ -798,14 +798,14 @@ bool ProjectFileManager::SaveAs(bool bWantSaveCopy /*= false*/, bool bLossless /
    }
 
    TranslatableString title;
-   wxString message;
+   TranslatableString message;
    if (bWantSaveCopy)
    {
       if (bLossless)
       {
          title = XO("%sSave Lossless Copy of Project \"%s\" As...")
             .Format( Restorer.sProjNumber,Restorer.sProjName );
-         message = _("\
+         message = XO("\
 'Save Lossless Copy of Project' is for an Audacity project, not an audio file.\n\
 For an audio file that will open in other apps, use 'Export'.\n\n\
 \
@@ -816,7 +816,7 @@ with no loss of quality, but the projects are large.\n");
       {
          title = XO("%sSave Compressed Copy of Project \"%s\" As...")
             .Format( Restorer.sProjNumber, Restorer.sProjName );
-         message = _("\
+         message = XO("\
 'Save Compressed Copy of Project' is for an Audacity project, not an audio file.\n\
 For an audio file that will open in other apps, use 'Export'.\n\n\
 \
@@ -828,7 +828,7 @@ but they have some loss of fidelity.\n");
    {
       title = XO("%sSave Project \"%s\" As...")
          .Format( Restorer.sProjNumber, Restorer.sProjName );
-      message = _("\
+      message = XO("\
 'Save Project' is for an Audacity project, not an audio file.\n\
 For an audio file that will open in other apps, use 'Export'.\n");
    }
@@ -1561,7 +1561,7 @@ void ProjectFileManager::OpenFile(const FilePath &fileNameArg, bool addtohistory
       ShowErrorDialog(
          &window,
          XO("Error Opening Project"),
-         errorStr.Translation(),
+         errorStr,
          results.helpUrl);
    }
 }
@@ -1703,7 +1703,7 @@ bool ProjectFileManager::Import(
          // Error message derived from Importer::Import
          // Additional help via a Help button links to the manual.
          ShowErrorDialog(&GetProjectFrame( project ), XO("Error Importing"),
-                         errorMessage.Translation(), wxT("Importing_Audio"));
+                         errorMessage, wxT("Importing_Audio"));
       }
       if (!success)
          return false;
diff --git a/src/effects/Effect.cpp b/src/effects/Effect.cpp
index c45a8fd5f..1c75b71e8 100644
--- a/src/effects/Effect.cpp
+++ b/src/effects/Effect.cpp
@@ -2441,7 +2441,7 @@ void Effect::Preview(bool dryOnly)
       }
       else {
          ShowErrorDialog(FocusDialog, XO("Error"),
-                         _("Error opening sound device.\nTry changing the audio host, playback device and the project sample rate."),
+                         XO("Error opening sound device.\nTry changing the audio host, playback device and the project sample rate."),
                          wxT("Error_opening_sound_device"));
       }
    }
diff --git a/src/effects/Equalization.cpp b/src/effects/Equalization.cpp
index 2a270bb8e..8f516790b 100644
--- a/src/effects/Equalization.cpp
+++ b/src/effects/Equalization.cpp
@@ -1777,9 +1777,9 @@ bool EffectEqualization::GetDefaultFileName(wxFileName &fileName)
    if( !fileName.FileExists() )
    {
       // LLL:  Is there really a need for an error message at all???
-      //wxString errorMessage;
-      //errorMessage.Printf(_("EQCurves.xml and EQDefaultCurves.xml were not found on your system.\nPlease press 'help' to visit the download page.\n\nSave the curves at %s"), FileNames::DataDir());
-      //ShowErrorDialog(mUIParent, _("EQCurves.xml and EQDefaultCurves.xml missing"),
+      //auto errorMessage = XO("EQCurves.xml and EQDefaultCurves.xml were not found on your system.\nPlease press 'help' to visit the download page.\n\nSave the curves at %s")
+      //   .Format( FileNames::DataDir() );
+      //ShowErrorDialog(mUIParent, XO("EQCurves.xml and EQDefaultCurves.xml missing"),
       //   errorMessage, wxT("http://wiki.audacityteam.org/wiki/EQCurvesDownload"), false);
 
       // Have another go at finding EQCurves.xml in the data dir, in case 'help' helped
diff --git a/src/export/Export.cpp b/src/export/Export.cpp
index 9ec0fd59d..a9c012409 100644
--- a/src/export/Export.cpp
+++ b/src/export/Export.cpp
@@ -883,21 +883,21 @@ bool Exporter::CheckMix()
          if (exportedChannels == 1) {
             if (ShowWarningDialog(pWindow,
                                   wxT("MixMono"),
-                                  _("Your tracks will be mixed down and exported as one mono file."),
+                                  XO("Your tracks will be mixed down and exported as one mono file."),
                                   true) == wxID_CANCEL)
                return false;
          }
          else if (exportedChannels == 2) {
             if (ShowWarningDialog(pWindow,
                                   wxT("MixStereo"),
-                                  _("Your tracks will be mixed down and exported as one stereo file."),
+                                  XO("Your tracks will be mixed down and exported as one stereo file."),
                                   true) == wxID_CANCEL)
                return false;
          }
          else {
             if (ShowWarningDialog(pWindow,
                                   wxT("MixUnknownChannels"),
-                                  _("Your tracks will be mixed down to one exported file according to the encoder settings."),
+                                  XO("Your tracks will be mixed down to one exported file according to the encoder settings."),
                                   true) == wxID_CANCEL)
                return false;
          }
diff --git a/src/export/ExportMultiple.cpp b/src/export/ExportMultiple.cpp
index 25257d401..6c1bd34e5 100644
--- a/src/export/ExportMultiple.cpp
+++ b/src/export/ExportMultiple.cpp
@@ -606,16 +606,16 @@ void ExportMultipleDialog::OnExport(wxCommandEvent& WXUNUSED(event))
    // Give 'em the result
    auto cleanup = finally( [&]
    {
-      wxString msg;
-      msg.Printf(
-         ok == ProgressResult::Success ? _("Successfully exported the following %lld file(s).")
-           : (ok == ProgressResult::Failed ? _("Something went wrong after exporting the following %lld file(s).")
-             : (ok == ProgressResult::Cancelled ? _("Export canceled after exporting the following %lld file(s).")
-               : (ok == ProgressResult::Stopped ? _("Export stopped after exporting the following %lld file(s).")
-                 : _("Something went really wrong after exporting the following %lld file(s).")
-                 )
-               )
-             ), (long long) mExported.size());
+      auto msg = (ok == ProgressResult::Success
+         ? XO("Successfully exported the following %lld file(s).")
+         : ok == ProgressResult::Failed
+            ? XO("Something went wrong after exporting the following %lld file(s).")
+            : ok == ProgressResult::Cancelled
+               ? XO("Export canceled after exporting the following %lld file(s).")
+               : ok == ProgressResult::Stopped
+                  ? XO("Export stopped after exporting the following %lld file(s).")
+                  : XO("Something went really wrong after exporting the following %lld file(s).")
+         ).Format((long long) mExported.size());
 
       wxString FileList;
       for (size_t i = 0; i < mExported.size(); i++) {
diff --git a/src/export/ExportPCM.cpp b/src/export/ExportPCM.cpp
index 2fdb5d7ac..19c9f6d69 100644
--- a/src/export/ExportPCM.cpp
+++ b/src/export/ExportPCM.cpp
@@ -401,8 +401,8 @@ ExportPCM::ExportPCM()
 void ExportPCM::ReportTooBigError(wxWindow * pParent)
 {
    //Temporary translation hack, to say 'WAV or AIFF' rather than 'WAV'
-   wxString message = 
-      _("You have attempted to Export a WAV or AIFF file which would be greater than 4GB.\n"
+   auto message =
+      XO("You have attempted to Export a WAV or AIFF file which would be greater than 4GB.\n"
       "Audacity cannot do this, the Export was abandoned.");
 
    ShowErrorDialog(pParent, XO("Error Exporting"), message,
@@ -412,7 +412,7 @@ void ExportPCM::ReportTooBigError(wxWindow * pParent)
 // compute the size in advance.
 #if 0
    ShowErrorDialog(pParent, XO("Error Exporting"),
-                  _("Your exported WAV file has been truncated as Audacity cannot export WAV\n"
+                  XO("Your exported WAV file has been truncated as Audacity cannot export WAV\n"
                     "files bigger than 4GB."),
                   wxT("Size_limits_for_WAV_files"));
 #endif
diff --git a/src/menus/TransportMenus.cpp b/src/menus/TransportMenus.cpp
index a54e9373a..ce045e036 100644
--- a/src/menus/TransportMenus.cpp
+++ b/src/menus/TransportMenus.cpp
@@ -364,11 +364,10 @@ void OnPunchAndRoll(const CommandContext &context)
          std::max(0L, gPrefs->Read(wxT("/AudioIO/RecordChannels"), 2));
       auto message =
          (recordingChannels == 1)
-         ? _("Please select in a mono track.")
+         ? XO("Please select in a mono track.")
          : (recordingChannels == 2)
-         ? _("Please select in a stereo track.")
-         : wxString::Format(
-            _("Please select at least %d channels."), recordingChannels);
+         ? XO("Please select in a stereo track.")
+         : XO("Please select at least %d channels.").Format( recordingChannels );
       ShowErrorDialog(&window, XO("Error"), message, url);
       return;
    }
@@ -410,7 +409,7 @@ void OnPunchAndRoll(const CommandContext &context)
    }
 
    if (error) {
-      auto message = _("Please select a time within a clip.");
+      auto message = XO("Please select a time within a clip.");
       ShowErrorDialog( &window, XO("Error"), message, url);
       return;
    }
diff --git a/src/widgets/ErrorDialog.cpp b/src/widgets/ErrorDialog.cpp
index 403b6054d..874fabad1 100644
--- a/src/widgets/ErrorDialog.cpp
+++ b/src/widgets/ErrorDialog.cpp
@@ -43,7 +43,7 @@ END_EVENT_TABLE()
 ErrorDialog::ErrorDialog(
    wxWindow *parent,
    const TranslatableString & dlogTitle,
-   const wxString & message,
+   const TranslatableString & message,
    const wxString & helpPage,
    const bool Close, const bool modal):
    wxDialogWrapper(parent, (wxWindowID)-1, dlogTitle)
@@ -63,7 +63,7 @@ ErrorDialog::ErrorDialog(
    S.StartVerticalLay();
    {
       S.SetBorder( 20 );
-      S.AddFixedText( message );
+      S.AddFixedText( message.Translation() );
       S.SetBorder( 2 );
       S.AddStandardButtons( buttonMask );
    }
@@ -104,7 +104,7 @@ void ErrorDialog::OnHelp(wxCommandEvent & WXUNUSED(event))
 
 void ShowErrorDialog(wxWindow *parent,
                      const TranslatableString &dlogTitle,
-                     const wxString &message,
+                     const TranslatableString &message,
                      const wxString &helpPage,
                      const bool Close)
 {
@@ -117,7 +117,7 @@ void ShowErrorDialog(wxWindow *parent,
 // unused.
 void ShowModelessErrorDialog(wxWindow *parent,
                              const TranslatableString &dlogTitle,
-                             const wxString &message,
+                             const TranslatableString &message,
                              const wxString &helpPage,
                              const bool Close)
 {
diff --git a/src/widgets/ErrorDialog.h b/src/widgets/ErrorDialog.h
index 4da36de2d..6b57cc672 100644
--- a/src/widgets/ErrorDialog.h
+++ b/src/widgets/ErrorDialog.h
@@ -28,7 +28,7 @@ public:
    // constructors and destructors
    ErrorDialog(wxWindow *parent,
       const TranslatableString & dlogTitle,
-      const wxString & message,
+      const TranslatableString & message,
       const wxString & helpPage,
       const bool Close = true, const bool modal = true);
 
@@ -47,14 +47,14 @@ private:
 /// Displays an error dialog with a button that offers help
 void ShowErrorDialog(wxWindow *parent,
                      const TranslatableString &dlogTitle,
-                     const wxString &message,
+                     const TranslatableString &message,
                      const wxString &helpPage,
                      bool Close = true);
 
 /// Displays a modeless error dialog with a button that offers help
 void ShowModelessErrorDialog(wxWindow *parent,
                      const TranslatableString &dlogTitle,
-                     const wxString &message,
+                     const TranslatableString &message,
                      const wxString &helpPage,
                      bool Close = true);
 
diff --git a/src/widgets/HelpSystem.cpp b/src/widgets/HelpSystem.cpp
index 29b058959..f7d17cf37 100644
--- a/src/widgets/HelpSystem.cpp
+++ b/src/widgets/HelpSystem.cpp
@@ -91,7 +91,7 @@ public:
 /// handled by having the code in one place.
 void HelpSystem::ShowInfoDialog( wxWindow *parent,
                      const TranslatableString &dlogTitle,
-                     const wxString &shortMsg,
+                     const TranslatableString &shortMsg,
                      const wxString &message,
                      const int xSize, const int ySize)
 {
@@ -105,7 +105,7 @@ void HelpSystem::ShowInfoDialog( wxWindow *parent,
 
    S.StartVerticalLay(1);
    {
-      S.AddTitle( shortMsg);
+      S.AddTitle( shortMsg.Translation() );
       S.Style( wxTE_MULTILINE | wxTE_READONLY | wxTE_RICH | wxTE_RICH2 |
               wxTE_AUTO_URL | wxTE_NOHIDESEL | wxHSCROLL )
          .AddTextWindow(message);
diff --git a/src/widgets/HelpSystem.h b/src/widgets/HelpSystem.h
index c86a7f83f..841e0663e 100644
--- a/src/widgets/HelpSystem.h
+++ b/src/widgets/HelpSystem.h
@@ -38,10 +38,10 @@ class AudacityProject;
 class HelpSystem
 {
 public:
-   /// Displays cutable information in a text ctrl, with an OK button.
+   /// Displays cuttable information in a text ctrl, with an OK button.
    static void ShowInfoDialog( wxWindow *parent,
                      const TranslatableString &dlogTitle,
-                     const wxString &shortMsg,
+                     const TranslatableString &shortMsg,
                      const wxString &message, 
                      const int xSize, const int ySize);
 
diff --git a/src/widgets/Warning.cpp b/src/widgets/Warning.cpp
index a5d019b8e..89d436bc8 100644
--- a/src/widgets/Warning.cpp
+++ b/src/widgets/Warning.cpp
@@ -35,8 +35,8 @@ class WarningDialog final : public wxDialogWrapper
  public:
    // constructors and destructors
    WarningDialog(wxWindow *parent,
-                 const wxString &message,
-                 const wxString &footer,
+                 const TranslatableString &message,
+                 const TranslatableString &footer,
                  bool showCancelButton);
 
  private:
@@ -51,13 +51,14 @@ BEGIN_EVENT_TABLE(WarningDialog, wxDialogWrapper)
    EVT_BUTTON(wxID_OK, WarningDialog::OnOK)
 END_EVENT_TABLE()
 
-const wxString &DefaultWarningFooter()
+const TranslatableString &DefaultWarningFooter()
 {
-   return _("Don't show this warning again");
+   static auto result = XO("Don't show this warning again");
+   return result;
 }
 
-WarningDialog::WarningDialog(wxWindow *parent, const wxString &message,
-                             const wxString &footer,
+WarningDialog::WarningDialog(wxWindow *parent, const TranslatableString &message,
+                             const TranslatableString &footer,
                              bool showCancelButton)
 :  wxDialogWrapper(parent, wxID_ANY, XO("Warning"),
             wxDefaultPosition, wxDefaultSize,
@@ -71,8 +72,8 @@ WarningDialog::WarningDialog(wxWindow *parent, const wxString &message,
    S.SetBorder(10);
    S.StartVerticalLay(false);
    {
-      S.AddFixedText(message);
-      mCheckBox = S.AddCheckBox(footer, false);
+      S.AddFixedText(message.Translation());
+      mCheckBox = S.AddCheckBox(footer.Translation(), false);
    }
    S.EndVerticalLay();
 
@@ -90,9 +91,9 @@ void WarningDialog::OnOK(wxCommandEvent& WXUNUSED(event))
 
 int ShowWarningDialog(wxWindow *parent,
                       const wxString &internalDialogName,
-                      const wxString &message,
+                      const TranslatableString &message,
                       bool showCancelButton,
-                      const wxString &footer)
+                      const TranslatableString &footer)
 {
    auto key = WarningDialogKey(internalDialogName);
    if (!gPrefs->Read(key, (long) true)) {
diff --git a/src/widgets/Warning.h b/src/widgets/Warning.h
index 2a3730938..5445e54ad 100644
--- a/src/widgets/Warning.h
+++ b/src/widgets/Warning.h
@@ -15,9 +15,10 @@
 
 #include <wx/defs.h>
 class wxString;
+class TranslatableString;
 
 // "Don't show this warning again"
- const wxString &DefaultWarningFooter();
+ const TranslatableString &DefaultWarningFooter();
 
 /// Displays a warning dialog with a check box.  If the user checks
 /// the box, the internalDialogName is noted in the
@@ -25,9 +26,9 @@ class wxString;
 /// the user; it should be unique to each message.
 int ShowWarningDialog(wxWindow *parent,
                       const wxString &internalDialogName,
-                      const wxString &message,
+                      const TranslatableString &message,
                       bool showCancelButton = false,
                       // This message appears by the checkbox:
-                      const wxString &footer = DefaultWarningFooter());
+                      const TranslatableString &footer = DefaultWarningFooter());
 
 #endif // __AUDACITY_WARNING__